Benchmark Raeford Sorghum Program

FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE

We are pleased to announce that Benchmark Renewable Energy has updated its Memorandum of Understanding with The United Sorghum Checkoff Program and North Carolina State University to develop a sustainable sorghum cultivation program. This program is designed to create jobs, improve local economic conditions, and complement the feedstock availability for our advanced biofuel plant in Raeford, North Carolina.

Benchmark’s engineering and operational model for the plant, conforms with multiple sustainability elements as stated in the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDG).

Benchmark Sustainable Production Program Overview

Benchmark Renewable Energy is implementing a 10-year sustainable production plan to encourage the adoption of sustainable farming practices. The core objectives are to improve the logistics of feedstock supply to the Raeford Ethanol plant and to promote proven pathways that will lower the Carbon Index (CI) of fuel ethanol.

We are collaborating with the United Sorghum Checkoff Program, North Carolina State University, and multiple local seed and fertilizer suppliers to increase grain sorghum cultivation in North Carolina, while promoting responsible farming practices.

- The 10-year objective is to reach 400,000 local acres of grain sorghum. The plant requires between 160,000 and 200,000 acres, depending on yields, to achieve capacity production.

- By lowering the amount of grain sorghum imported from the Midwest, we will significantly reduce the carbon footprint associated with feedstock transportation.

- While the plant will initially use grain sorghum, Benchmark plans to deploy sweet sorghum as an alternate feedstock and use camelina oil seeds to complement sorghum oil extraction, facilitating the potential of future production of Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF) at the plant.

Feedstock Farming & Local Supervision

Benchmark is developing a database of qualifying local sorghum farmers and will issue annual farming guidelines aimed at reducing the CI of the grain sorghum delivered to the plant.

Qualifying farmers who comply with the guidelines, as confirmed through periodic supervision and certification, will be entitled to receive a premium over the commodity price per bushel from CHS, the Raeford facilities contracted grain procurement agent. This price premium will be published annually based on a point matrix of qualifying criteria.

The annual qualifying criteria will include:

1. Renewable Fuels Use at the Farm: Substituting renewable fuels for conventional diesel and gasoline in farm equipment (estimated reduction of 3 g CO2e/MJ ethanol).

2. Cover Crops and Proper Crop Rotation: Implementing soil recovery programs utilizing crop rotation (estimated net soil carbon benefit of 73 g CO2e/bu of sorghum).

3. Renewable Fertilizer Use (Renewable Ammonia for Nitrogen): Sourcing renewable ammonia to significantly reduce the CI of nitrogen fertilizers (estimated reduction of 10.5 g CO2e/MJ).

4. 4R Fertilizer Management (Right time, Right place, Right form, and Right rate): Utilizing optimized fertilizer management techniques, including GPS-guided precision application and modeling, which requires intense supervision by Benchmark to ensure steady yield increases and production efficiency.

5. Enhanced Efficiency Fertilizers (EEFs): Using chemically-modified or supplemented fertilizers to increase stability, reduce decomposition, and lower emissions (estimated reduction of 2.2 g CO2e/MJ).

Benchmark has the technology and in-house capabilities, and importantly, senior management’s commitment, to drive this 10-year strategic program and improve grain sorghum yields, while promoting best practices for farmers in North Carolina. Benchmark is also committing to best practices for detailed reporting of the Company's efforts, especially pertaining to responsibly sourcing its grain feedstocks

For additional information, please contact the company.

 CI Source: Pathways to Net-Zero Ethanol report. Scenarios for Ethanol Producers to Achieve Carbon Neutrality by 2050. Prepared by Isaac Emery, Ph.D., Informed Sustainability Consulting, LLC Everett, WA, with assistance from Eric Joyce and Christian Salles, PreScouter, Inc. Chicago, IL. February 2022.

Benchmark Raeford North Carolina (UPDATE)

FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE

Benchmark Renewable Energy LLC (https://www.benchmarkrenewable.com), an advanced biofuel developer based in Clearwater, Florida, has reached an agreement to acquire the ethanol plant and related assets of Tyton NC Biofuels LLC in North Carolina.

The plant, located in Raeford, North Carolina, is a first-generation corn-to-ethanol facility. Once completed, it will have a low-carbon annual production capacity of 61.5 million gallons. Benchmark's business plan includes modifying the plant to produce advanced biofuels, eliminating the use of hydrocarbons, improving production yields, enhancing the digestibility of co-products such as distillers dried grains, and enabling the plant to process multiple feedstocks, including sorghum.

Benchmark Design LLC is responsible for the new process design, and Corval Group of Minnesota will undertake the plant modifications under an Engineering, Procurement, and Construction (EPC) Contract. Following the modifications, NAES will operate the plant under an Operations and Maintenance (O&M) Agreement.

The CEO of Benchmark Design LLC stated, "We are delighted to have the opportunity to improve and operate the Raeford plant. We intend to leverage our experience in deploying the latest available technology and commercial best demonstrated practices from other food processing industries, fuel ethanol distilleries in Brazil, rum distilleries in Central and South America, and fuel ethanol plants in California and North Dakota. We expect Raeford to be a showcase for low-carbon operations and biofuel production in the United States. The plant is ideally located to service CITGO’s (Offtake Agreement in place) ethanol blending requirements on the East Coast.

The grain feedstock required for operations will be provided by CHS.

The acquisition is anticipated to be finalized in the fourth quarter of 2025, with construction and modifications expected to have the plant back in operation in early 2027.

For additional information, please contact Benchmark Renewable Energy.

Benchmark Fusion Review 2025

Fusion energy is the holy grail of renewable energy production.

The technology is advancing rapidly, with three companies currently constructing demonstration plants in Pennsylvania, Boston, and California. A significant advantage of fusion is the absence of radioactive radiation.

Globally, approximately 53 private companies are actively developing commercial fusion technology, alongside government efforts in the U.S., China, and other countries. Since 2021, private fusion companies have collectively raised over $9 billion in development capital. Successful implementation of commercial fusion plants is projected to create a market valuation exceeding $40 trillion. The three leading companies anticipate having commercial pilot plants operational by 2030.

Various fuel pathways can be used for fusion, all aiming to produce more energy than consumed in the reaction. The primary fuel sources being explored include:

1. Deuterium-Tritium (produced by water electrolysis)

2. Boron

3. Helium-3 (an ideal fuel source, though challenging to produce, with potential for unlimited mining on the Moon)

4. Lithium

5. Other sources (Benchmark is exploring the use of ethanol carbon chains for fusion).

While the implementation of a commercial fusion plant presents challenges, the estimated CAPEX cost for a 200 MW plant is around $1 billion.

We may be on the cusp of an energy breakthrough that could transform human history by providing an unlimited global energy supply. It is crucial for our nation to lead in this technology. We should foster a collaborative program between private companies and the government, similar to the Manhattan Project or the NASA lunar landing effort, to achieve effective fusion solutions.

The impact of this technology will be so profound that history will be divided into "before fusion energy" and "after fusion energy."

For additional information, please contact the company.

U.S. Bioethanol Production. A Sustainable Energy Model

Currently, bioethanol stands as the primary renewable energy source in the U.S. and is widely used in gasoline blends. A common perception is that the crops used for ethanol production compete directly with food production. However, this is no longer the case. The ethanol industry primarily utilizes Dent Corn, a specific variety distinct from the Food-Grade or Sweet Corn we consume.

Interestingly, the processing of Dent Corn for ethanol yields valuable byproducts, notably Distillers Dry Grain (DDG) and Cereal Oils. DDG has become a fundamental feed source for livestock, including cattle, poultry, and hogs, thus indirectly supporting the human food chain. Furthermore, the bioethanol sector is continually enhancing DDG production to better preserve proteins and amino acids, leading to improved feed-conversion ratios and greater efficiency in livestock farming.

At Benchmark, we favor sorghum as a feedstock for ethanol production due to its significant advantages over corn. Sorghum exhibits greater drought tolerance, lower input costs, reduced competition for land use, and the potential for cellulosic ethanol production. The high starch content in sorghum grains makes them readily convertible into fermentable sugars, resulting in efficient ethanol fermentation and potentially higher ethanol yields per acre.

FUTURE OF ETHANOL AS A BLEND ENHANCER TO GASOLINE

Looking ahead, ethanol blending in U.S. gasoline is anticipated to increase, driven by government policies like the Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS), evolving market trends, environmental considerations, and technological advancements. The RFS, administered by the EPA, mandates increasing volumes of ethanol blending to lower greenhouse gas emissions and reduce reliance on imported oil. While E10 (10% ethanol, 90% gasoline) remains the most common blend, there is growing momentum for higher blends such as E15 and E85 as retail infrastructure expands.

Several factors support this trend:

-Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS): This federal mandate sets increasing annual targets for renewable fuel blending, including specific volumes for ethanol.

-State-Level Initiatives: Many states, particularly in the Midwest, are advocating for year-round availability of higher ethanol blends like E15.

-Low Carbon Fuel Standards (LCFS): States with LCFS programs incentivize the use of low-carbon fuels such as ethanol to decrease the carbon intensity of transportation fuels, with more states considering similar legislation.

BENCHMARK ETHANOL OUTLOOK

From Benchmark's perspective, we foresee continued growth in ethanol blending, particularly with E15 and E85, driven by supportive policies, environmental concerns, and market dynamics. Ethanol is poised to remain a vital component of the U.S. transportation fuel mix. While competition from other alternative fuels like electric vehicles and hydrogen exists, hybrid and flex-fuel vehicles will continue to support ethanol blending.

Another important aspect is the role of ethanol in addressing the issue of aromatics in gasoline. While aromatics are added to gasoline to boost octane and energy density, they pose significant health and environmental risks. Ethanol offers a cleaner-burning alternative that also increases octane. Consequently, ethanol is increasingly being used to replace aromatics in modern gasoline formulations, helping to meet both performance and environmental objectives for new high-compression engines.

Recent studies further highlight the benefits of ethanol blending, including life-cycle analyses from the U.S. DOE Argonne National Laboratory, EPA MOVES model studies demonstrating air quality improvements, SAE technical papers showing engine efficiency gains, and research from Harvard/MIT linking urban aromatic emissions to health problems.

In conclusion, bioethanol production in the U.S. represents a sustainable energy model with numerous benefits, from supporting the agricultural sector and livestock production to improving air quality and reducing our reliance on imported fossil fuels. We believe that continued support for and advancement in ethanol blending will play a crucial role in our nation's energy future.

SAF Grand Challenge Landscape

The United States has put in motion the Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF) Grand Challenge, which seeks to expedite the development of alternative fuel pathways that offer a minimum of a 50% reduction in life cycle greenhouse gas emissions compared to conventional jet fuel. The SAF Grand Challenge also establishes ambitious domestic production volume targets of 3 billion gallons of SAF per year by 2030 and a stretch goal of meeting 100% of the projected domestic aviation fuel demand of approximately 35 billion gallons per year by 2050.

In 2023, the United States consumed approximately 23 million gallons of SAF collectively across various small-scale operations. To hit the 2030 target of 3 billion gal/yr., this means about a 100% compound annual growth rate (CAGR) in volumetric SAF production (about 130-times scale-up).

In March 2024, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (“NREL”) published a study describing the technical challenges that need to be addressed in order to comply with the SAF volume targets.

They concluded that independent of the chosen feedstock and conversion technology to produce SAF, numerous challenges persist across production in seeking to drive down fuel cost and CI. Arguably one of the greatest near-term challenges to achieving the SAF Grand Challenge goals is technology scaling.

NREL makes a compelling argument that one possible avenue for rapid expansion would leverage existing assets from the first-generation bioethanol industry. In 2023, the nameplate capacity for the U.S. bioethanol industry was more than 18 billion gallons of ethanol annually. However, due to mandated EPA renewable identification number volume blend limits, U.S. production was only 15 billion gallons. In other words, the refineries operated at an average capacity of about 87%. If these assets were utilized to their full potential and leveraged the additional 2+ billion gallons per year of bioethanol within existing infrastructure, combined with carbon capture and storage or other strategies to minimize the CI footprint, it could present a near-term opportunity to help reach the 2030 Grand Challenge goals via ASTM-approved ATJ pathways. In addition, other high-technology-readiness-level strategies such as HEFA must continue to expand with diversifying FOG-type petroleum refinery feedstocks, with lipids or other compatible intermediate streams from energy crops, algae, and lignocellulosic biomass.

To achieve the goal of 35 billion gallons of SAF per year by 2050, volumetric production must increase by a factor of 12 from the 3-billion-gal/year 2030 target. In terms of CAGR, this increase represents an annual growth rate of about 13% over 20 years (2030– 2050). However, when viewed from the current 2023 production numbers, this represents an average CAGR of about 31% that will need to be sustained over the next 27 years to hit this target. While lower than the CAGR required to achieve the 2030 target, maintaining such a growth rate over a long period remains ambitious, and every year that new projects are delayed, the more difficult the achievement becomes. Industry and policymakers must act swiftly and decisively to keep these targets within grasp.

However, if the 35-billion-gal/yr. target were met entirely with e-fuels, estimates show that nearly 3,500 TWh of electricity would be required, representing a more than 5-times increase from current wind and solar generation levels and about 85% of the total electricity consumed in the United States.

Production of SAF from CO2 also has its challenges. On the surface, CO2 could not be more different than conventional petroleum feedstock; CO2 has no intrinsic energy content, is nearly 73% oxygen by mass, and is completely devoid of hydrogen. Therefore, whereas petroleum starts from a place of molecules with high molecular weight and high energy that are cracked down to size, CO2 must be reconstructed molecule by molecule via energy-intensive processes to establish new carbon-carbon and carbon-hydrogen bonds to create fuels and products. While the precise energy demand depends on the conversion process utilized, estimates suggest an energy intensity on the order of 100 kWh required per gallon of CO2-derived SAF.

It is our company’s opinion that irrespective of the SAF production pathway chosen, it is critical for the scaling of production, to develop a large supply of COST-EFFECTIVE hydrogen.

Many technical challenges remain warranting additional R&D for lower unit capital expenses, improved stability and durability, higher energy efficiencies and cost per gallon management, including temporary federal tax incentives.

For additional information, please contact the company.

The Case for Higher Ethanol Blends in Automobiles

When the waiver petition to use E15 year-around was filed, the U.S. Department of Energy’s Mid-Level Ethanol Blends Program conducted a study for 2 years, led by Oak Ridge Lab, to assess the impact of E15 and E20 on internal combustion engines used in automobiles.

The study concluded that using E20 as a phase-in to higher blends would be compatible with virtually all vehicles in the road today.

Oak Ridge Lab took it a step further and tested a modified Ford 150 light truck using a 98 RON E25 blend. They validated that the E25 blend increased power, improved efficiency in the range of 6% and reduce CO2 emissions.

While aromatics were not a component of the testing at Oak Ridge Lab, work at the Clean Fuels Development Coalition (“CFDC”) and EPA’s own data shows that clean, high-octane ethanol also replaces aromatic compounds which fall under EPA regulation of air toxics. General Motors, among others, has concluded aromatics are the source of 98% of the fine particulates from gasoline combustion.

According to Brian West, an automotive engineer who led the vehicle testing for the U.S. Department of Energy’s Mid-Level Ethanol Blends Program, “we should be talking about much higher volumes of ethanol in terms of blend rates”

Mr. West notes that vehicles today are safer, more durable, have more power and better fuel economy, and dramatically lower emissions due to the robust systems and the calibrators’ ability to micromanage the powertrain. They can handle blends well in excess of the current E10-E15 and in so doing provide substantial emission reductions.

West said, “I felt that bioethanol could do so much more. Bioethanol boosts octane and allows improved engine efficiency.”

For additional information, please contact the company.

2023 Ethanol Industry in Numbers

According to the annual economic impact analysis conducted by the Renewable Fuels Association and ABF Economics, low carbon fuel ethanol and its co-products contributed to the U.S. Economy as follows:

JOBS: 72,400 direct jobs / 328,000 indirect and induced for a total of 400,000 JOBS

GDP: the industry contributed $54.2 billion to the nation’s gross domestic product.

TAXES: $10.4 billion was generated in tax revenue for federal, state and local governments.

RAW Materials: $39 billion. ($32 billion in corn purchases)

The ethanol industry is the original creator of “Green Jobs” and with new technologies being deployed, it shall continue to support energy independence, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and continue further wealth creation in agriculture and rural economies.

New Testing Confirming SAF Attributes

A new study from The University of Manchester tested the emissions of an aircraft using SAF finding a large reduction when compared to regular jet fuel.

They concluded that SAF has the potential to reduce climate-changing greenhouse gas emissions in aviation by up to 80% compared to hydrocarbon standard jet fuel. Extensive testing was carried out in the FAAM Airborne Laboratory Bae-146 aircraft.

In addition, on October 13, 2023, Boeing announced it is partnering with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and Chicago-based commercial airline United Airlines for in-flight testing to measure how SAF affects contrails and non-carbon emissions.

Boeing's second ecoDemonstrator Explorer, a 737-10 destined for United Airlines, will fly with 100% SAF and conventional jet fuel in separate tanks and alternate fuels during testing. NASA's DC-8 Airborne Science Lab will fly behind the commercial jet and measure emissions produced by each type of fuel and contrail ice particles. NASA satellites will capture images of contrail formation as part of the testing.

Corval’s Robert Weir and Juan Briceno from Benchmark attended the recently held SAF Conference in Minneapolis and learned of new SAF projects and technologies moving forward to fulfill commercial/general aviation goals and SAF requirements.

New USDA Support for Camelina Crops to Produce SAF

The USDA announced June 30 that it will expand crop insurance for camelina crops in direct response to the anticipated increase in demand for camelina as feedstock to produce SAF.

Only camelina grown under contract with a biofuel processor is eligible for insurance coverage.

Camelina is a nonfood crop that will provide a very low carbon feedstock to produce SAF and will produce a high protein animal feed as a by-product.

Benchmark is developing a grain sorghum farming program in North Carolina that will include designing a crop rotation strategy with camelina.

CAMELINA AS A ROTATION CROP

Camelina (Camelina sativa) is considered a beneficial rotation crop when farming grain sorghum. It offers several potential advantages as part of a rotation strategy.

Potential benefits of using Camelina as a rotation crop for grain sorghum:

1. Diversification: Including camelina in the rotation can help diversify the cropping system, which can have positive effects on pest and disease management. Different crops attract different pests and pathogens, so rotating crops can disrupt pest life cycles and reduce the buildup of specific pests and diseases that may affect grain sorghum.

2. Weed suppression: Camelina has shown some potential for weed suppression due to its ability to form a dense canopy. It can compete with and suppress weeds, potentially reducing the weed pressure in subsequent grain sorghum crops.

3. Nutrient cycling: Camelina has a deep taproot system that can access nutrients from deeper soil layers. When grown as a rotation crop, it can scavenge nutrients that may have accumulated at different soil depths, making them available for subsequent crops like grain sorghum.

4. Soil health improvement: The deep root system of camelina can also help improve soil structure and increase organic matter content. Its residues, when incorporated into the soil after harvest, contribute to organic matter accumulation, enhancing soil fertility and moisture retention.

5. Biofuels Market potential: Camelina has gained attention as an oilseed crop with various potential uses, including biofuels and livestock feed. Growing camelina as a rotation crop may provide additional revenue streams for farmers, diversifying income sources.

Note: The by-product (cake) of Camelina after oil processing is rich in protein suitable for animal feed.

Key considerations regarding growing Camelina in North Carolina:

1. Climate: Camelina is adaptable to a wide range of climates, including temperate regions. In North Carolina, it can generally be grown as a cool-season crop. It prefers cool temperatures during its early growth stages, typically germinating and establishing well in temperatures between 40°F (4°C) and 60°F (15.5°C). However, it can tolerate higher temperatures during its flowering and seed development stages.

2. Growing Season: In North Carolina, camelina can be sown in late winter or early spring, depending on the specific location and climate conditions. It requires a growing season of approximately 90-100 days from planting to harvest.

3. Soil Requirements: Camelina can adapt to various soil types, including sandy loam, loam, and clay loam soils. Well-drained soils with good fertility and organic matter content are generally favorable for camelina cultivation.

4. Crop Management: Proper crop management practices are crucial for successful camelina cultivation. Adequate soil preparation, including seedbed preparation and weed control, is important. Irrigation may be necessary during dry periods, especially during the establishment phase. Additionally, it's essential to select suitable camelina cultivars adapted to the local climate and to follow recommended planting and harvesting techniques.

For additional information, contact the company.

PRODUCTION OF SAF FROM BIODIESEL

The process of producing SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUEL “SAF” from biodiesel involves a series of steps. following a general overview of the process:

1. Biodiesel production: Biodiesel is typically produced through the transesterification of vegetable oils or animal fats. This process involves reacting the oils or fats with an alcohol (such as methanol) and a catalyst to produce biodiesel and glycerol as a byproduct.

2. Hydrodeoxygenation (HDO): The next step is to convert biodiesel into a hydrocarbon feedstock suitable for SAF production. HDO is a common method used for this purpose. In this process, the biodiesel is reacted with hydrogen under specific temperature and pressure conditions, typically using a catalyst, to remove oxygen and reduce the oxygen content in the fuel.

3. Isomerization and hydrogenation: The hydrocarbon feedstock obtained from HDO is then subjected to isomerization and hydrogenation processes. Isomerization involves rearranging the molecular structure of the feedstock to improve its cold-flow properties and stability. Hydrogenation is a process where the feedstock is further reacted with hydrogen to enhance its energy density.

4. Distillation and purification: The resulting hydrocarbon mixture is then distilled to separate different fractions based on their boiling points. The desired fraction, suitable for use as SAF, is isolated and purified to remove any impurities or remaining oxygen content.

5. Blending with conventional jet fuel: The final step involves blending the purified SAF with conventional jet fuel, typically in certain proportions specified by aviation fuel standards (currently 50:50) This blending process ensures that the resulting SAF meets the required specifications for use in aircraft engines.

Steam Methane Reformers (“SMR”)

SMR that utilize natural gas are proven commercially. It’s an effective pathway to source the hydrogen required for manufacturing SAF.

Other sources for sourcing hydrogen, although more sustainable, are difficult to produce at a reasonable cost given the high sustainable energy required.

HYFROGEN SOURCES

The hydrogen required for SAF production from biodiesel can come from various sources. Here are a few common methods for sourcing hydrogen:

1. Steam Methane Reforming (SMR): The most widely used method for hydrogen production is steam methane reforming. In this process, natural gas (methane) reacts with steam at high temperatures to produce hydrogen and carbon monoxide. The carbon monoxide is then further reacted to produce additional hydrogen. SMR is a well-established and cost-effective method for large-scale hydrogen production.

2. Electrolysis: Electrolysis is a process that uses electricity to split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. If the electricity used for electrolysis comes from renewable sources like solar or wind power, the hydrogen produced is considered renewable as well. This method is known as "green hydrogen." Electrolysis can also utilize electricity from the grid, which may come from a mix of renewable and non-renewable sources, making the resulting hydrogen less sustainable.

3. Biomass Gasification: Biomass gasification is a thermochemical process that converts biomass, such as agricultural waste or wood, into a mixture of gases, including hydrogen. This process involves heating the biomass at high temperatures with a controlled amount of oxygen or steam. The resulting syngas (synthesis gas) can be further processed to extract hydrogen.

4. Other Renewable Sources: Hydrogen can also be produced from other renewable sources, such as solar or wind power, through innovative technologies like solar water splitting or wind electrolysis. These methods directly use renewable energy to generate hydrogen without intermediate steps.

ISOMERIZATION

This step is probably the most important to control in order to have an efficient production and conversion yields when making SAF.

Isomerization plays a crucial role in the production of SAF from biodiesel.

Isomerization involves rearranging the molecular structure of the hydrocarbon feedstock derived from biodiesel to improve its cold-flow properties and stability. This process helps ensure that the SAF meets the necessary specifications for use in aircraft engines. Here's a closer look at the isomerization process:

1. Purpose of isomerization: The hydrocarbon feedstock obtained from the hydrodeoxygenation (HDO) step of biodiesel conversion may contain straight-chain hydrocarbons that have poor low-temperature properties, such as high pour point and cloud point. These properties refer to the temperature at which the fuel begins to solidify or form waxy deposits, which can cause issues in cold weather or at high altitudes. Isomerization is employed to transform these straight-chain hydrocarbons into branched-chain isomers, which have improved cold-flow properties.

2. Catalysts: Isomerization reactions typically require the use of catalysts to facilitate the rearrangement of molecular structures. These catalysts are often based on metals, such as platinum, palladium, or zeolites, which can selectively promote the desired isomerization reactions.

3. Reaction conditions: The isomerization process is carried out under specific temperature and pressure conditions to maximize the yield of desired isomers. The exact conditions can vary depending on the specific feedstock and catalyst used. Elevated temperatures and pressures are typically employed to achieve better conversion rates and isomer selectivity.

4. Reaction mechanism: Isomerization reactions involve breaking and reforming carbon-carbon bonds within the hydrocarbon molecules. The catalyst facilitates these bond rearrangements, leading to the formation of different isomers. The specific mechanisms can vary depending on the feedstock and catalyst used, but generally involve the migration of carbon atoms within the molecule to form branched isomers.

5. Product separation: After the isomerization reaction, the mixture is typically subjected to further separation processes, such as distillation, to isolate the desired isomers with improved cold-flow properties. This helps remove any unconverted feedstock or byproducts from the final SAF product.

By undergoing isomerization, the hydrocarbon feedstock derived from biodiesel is transformed into a mixture of branched-chain isomers that exhibit better low-temperature properties and increased resistance to solidification. This enhances the overall performance and suitability of the SAF for use in aviation applications.

For additional information, please contact the company.